Reducing Work-Life Conflict: What Works? What Doesn't?

3.4.3 And So What? How Important Is the Link Between Working for a Non-Supportive Manager and Work-Life Conflict?

Analyses done to determine how working for a non-supportive manager impacts work-life conflict is provided in Appendix D. A summary of the key findings discussed in this section can be found in Tables 9 (gender by job type) and 10 (gender by dependent care). The link between non-supportive management behaviours (total measure) and work-life conflict is discussed first. This is followed by an overview of the impact that the various behaviours in the non-supportive manager measure have on each dimension of work-life conflict.

Table 9: Impact of Non-Supportive Management Behaviours on Work-Life Conflict: Gender by Job Type
a. Main Effects

Management Behaviours	Overload	Work to Family	Family to Work	Caregiver Strain
Put me down in front of colleagues	Interaction	Interaction	R2 = .011	R2 = .032
Only talks to me when I make a mistake	Interaction	Interaction	R2 = .011	R2 = .034
Makes me feel guilty about time off for personal or family reasons	Interaction	Interaction	R2 = .019	R2 = .037
Focuses on hours of work not output	Interaction	Interaction	R2 = .015	R2 = .038
Has unrealistic work expectations	Interaction	Interaction	R2 = .013	R2 = .037
Puts in long hours and expects me to do the same	Interaction	Interaction	R2 = .013	R2 = .031

Table 9: Impact of Non-Supportive Management Behaviours on Work-Life Conflict: Gender by Job Type
b. Significant Interactions

Management Behaviour	Overload	Work to Family	Family to Work	Caregiver Strain
Put me down in front of colleagues	F = 4.49, α = .000 R2 = .044	F = 4.29, α = .000 R2 = .067	ns	ns
Only talks to me when I make a mistake	F = 3.19, α = .001 R2 = .040	F = 2.82, α = .01 R2 = .062	ns	ns
Makes me feel guilty about time off for personal or family reasons	F = 3.45, α = .000 R2 = .067	F = 5.41, α = .000 R2 = .092	ns	ns
Focuses on hours of work not output	F = 5.07, α = .000 R2 = .055	F = 5.67, α = .000 R2 = .076	ns	ns
Has unrealistic expectations about work to be done	F = 3.78, α = .001 R2 = .110	F = 5.41, α = .000 R2 = .123	ns	ns
Puts in long hours and expects me to do the same	F = 5.47, α = .000 R2 = .071	F = 6.76, α = .000 R2 = .112	ns	ns

Table 10: Impact of Non-Supportive Management Behaviours on Work-Life Conflict: Gender by Dependent Care
a. Main Effects

Management Behaviours	Overload	Work to Family	Family to Work	Caregiver Strain
Put me down in front of colleagues	R2 = .053 **	Interaction	R2 = .048 **	R2 = .045 **
Only talks to me when I make a mistake	R2 = .049 **	F = 310.21, α = .000 R2 = .041, Δ = 0.4	R2 = .049 **	R2 = .048 **
Makes me feel guilty about time off for personal or family reasons	F = 368.66, α = .000 R2 = .071, Δ = 0.4	Interaction	F = 173.72, α = .000 R2 = .059, Δ = 0.3	F = 26.09, α = .000 R2 = .048, Δ = 0.3
Focuses on hours of work not output	F = 145.5, α = .000 R2 = .058, Δ = 0.4	F = 130.2, α = .000 R2 = .052, Δ = 0.5	Interaction	F = 39.33, α = .000 R2 = .052, Δ = 0.3
Has unrealistic work expectations	Interaction	Interaction	R2 = .051 **	F = 30.13, α = .000 R2 = .051, Δ = 0.3
Puts in long hours and expects me to do the same	Interaction	Interaction	R2 = .051 **	R2 = .041 **

Table 10: Impact of Non-Supportive Management Behaviours on Work-Life Conflict: Gender by Dependent Care
b. Significant Interactions

Management Behaviour	Overload	Work to Family	Family to Work	Caregiver Strain
Puts me down in front of colleagues	ns	F = 2.62, α = .01 R2 = .047	ns	ns
Makes me feel guilty about time off for personal or family reasons	ns	F = 1.76, α = .001 R2 = .069	ns	ns
Focuses on hours of work not output	ns	ns	F = 2.71, α = .01 R2 = .059	ns
Has unrealistic expectations about work to be done	F = 4.39, α = .000 R2 = .111	F = 4.69, α = .000 R2 = .097	ns	ns
Puts in long hours and expects me to do the same	F = 3.32, α = .000 R2 = .087	F = 3.46, α = .000 R2 = .111	ns	ns

Figure 30: Impact of Working for a Non-supportive Manager (Total Measure)

3.4.3.1 Impact of Non-Supportive Management (Total Measure) on Work-Life Conflict

Employees who report to a non-supportive manager report higher levels of role overload and work-to-family interference

Employees who report to a non-supportive manager report significantly higher levels of role overload and work-to-family interference than counterparts who work for a manager who rarely displays the six non-supportive behaviours included in this measure. These relationships are particularly noteworthy for several reasons. First, the data show that the number of hours worked per week is approximately the same for the two groups, suggesting that the increase in overload and interference is not due to more time in work. Second, non-supportive management is significantly and substantively associated with role overload and work-to-family interference, suggesting that all types of employees find balance problematic with this type of manager. Third, the difference in role overload (Δ = +.8) and work-to-family interference (Δ = +1.0) between those employees who work for a manager who is non-supportive and those who work for a manager who does not behave in a non-supportive manner is substantive (Figure 30). In fact, the employees who work for non-supportive managers report the highest levels of role overload and work-to-family interference in the entire sample.

Management support is linked to lower levels of family-to-work interference and caregiver strain

Both men and women who work for a non-supportive manager report higher levels of family-to-work interference (Δ = +.4) and caregiver strain (Δ = +.8) when dependent care status is taken into account.³⁴ The strong relationship between caregiver strain and non-supportive management in particular should be noted. It would appear that managers who focus on things such as hours at work and "being present" exacerbate this form of conflict.

3.4.3.2 Impact of the Different Non-Supportive Behaviours

The measure of non-supportive management included in this analysis includes six behaviours. To help employers evaluate which of these behaviours are the most problematic from a work-life perspective, we examined the extent to which each of the six was associated with increased levels of the four types of work-life conflict when the employee's gender, job type and dependent care status were taken into account. The analysis protocol followed in this section is identical to that described earlier. The data are found in Appendix D and summarized in Table 9 (gender by job type) and Table 10 (summarizes key finding from gender by dependent care analysis).

Disrespectful behaviour, while unpleasant, is not strongly associated with work-life balance

Two of the six behaviours included in our measure of non-supportive management are, with one exception (work-to-family interference), not substantively associated with work-life for any of the groups of employees considered in this study. While having a manager who frequently engages in disrespectful behaviours, such as putting you down in front of colleagues and talking to you only when you make a mistake, may be stressful and unpleasant, it is not linked to role overload, family-to-work interference or caregiver strain.

Employees who have a manager who focuses on hours at work rather than output report higher levels of role overload

The results are clear -- employees who report to a non-supportive manager report higher levels of role overload than their counterparts who report to a manager who rarely displays non-supportive behaviours. The most problematic behaviours are having a manager who:

• has unreasonable expectations of the amount of work that can be done in a given amount of time
• works long hours and expects employees to do the same
• makes employees feel guilty about taking time off to deal with personal/family issues
• focuses on hours rather than output

The relationship between each of these behaviours and role overload depends on gender, job type and dependent care status, as shown in Figures 31 through 34.

Figure 31: Relationship Between Unreasonable Expectations Around Work and Role Overload
a. Gender by Job Type

Figure 31: Relationship Between Unreasonable Expectations Around Work and Role Overload
b. Gender by Dependent Care

Figure 32: Relationship Between Working Long Hours and Expecting Employees to Do the Same and Role Overload
a. Gender by Job Type

Figure 32: Relationship Between Working Long Hours and Expecting Employees to Do the Same and Role Overload
b. Gender and Dependent Care Status

Figure 33: Relationship Between Making Employees Feel Guilty About Taking Time Off
Gender by Job Type

Figure 34: Relationship Between Focuses on Hours Rather than Output and Role Overload
Gender by Job Type Analysis

Men who report to managers with unreasonable work expectations report higher role overload

One of the six non-supportive behaviours, having unreasonable expectations with respect to work, is associated with a greater increase in role overload for men than women regardless of job type (Figure 31a). This behaviour is associated with an increase in role overload of +.7 for the men in the sample compared to an increase of +.6 for the women. While it is impossible to know why this gender difference occurs, we speculate that it may be attributed to differences in gender-role expectations. Traditionally, men in Canada have had primary responsibility for the work role while women have had responsibility for the family. Such expectations might make it harder for men than women to say no to more work and refuse overtime work, extra assignments, etc.

Employees with dependent care experience higher levels of role overload when they report to a manager who works long hours themselves and has unreasonable work expectations

Two non-supportive behaviours are associated with higher levels of role overload for men and women with dependent care responsibilities than their counterparts without dependent care (Figures 31b and 32b): unreasonable expectations with respect to work results (increase in role overload of +.9 for those with dependent care responsibilities versus +.7 for those without such responsibilities) and working long hours and expecting employees to do the same (increase in role overload of +.6 for those with dependent care responsibilities versus +.5 for those without such responsibilities). In other words, having a manager who expects subordinates to work long hours to meet unreasonable work deliverables regardless of expectations outside of work is associated with increased role overload for employees who try to do it all (i.e. stay late to get the work done and then go home and perform their second shift). It is also interesting to note that these types of behaviours are equally problematic for men and women with dependent care, suggesting that it is the demands outside of work that make the difference here, not gender-role expectations. Finally, it should be noted that all employees find these behaviours problematic.

Those in other positions who report to a manager who works long hours and expects them to do the same report higher role overload

Having a manager who works long hours and expects employees to do the same is more problematic for men and women who work in other positions in the organization (Figure 32a) regardless of their gender (increase in role overload of .6 for those in other positions versus .5 for those in management and professional jobs). These findings suggest that role overload increases for those in other positions when they report to a manager whose own behaviour makes it more difficult for employees to keep regular hours. We can speculate that employees in these types of positions within the organization have less ability to "push back" and say no to this type of manager.

Female managers and professionals who report to a manager who focuses on hours, not output, and makes them feel guilty about non-work responsibilities report very high role overload

Women who report to managers who make employees feel guilty for taking time off to deal with personal or family issues (Figure 33) and who focus on hours at work rather than output (Figure 34) report very high levels of role overload. The fact that the difference in role overload between female managers and professionals who have a manager who rarely displays these behaviours compared to women who report to a manager who is highly non-supportive in these two areas is + 0.7 illustrates the link between role overload and these dimensions of non-supportive management for this group. Also worthy of note is that men in managerial and professional positions seem to react very differently to these behaviours than either their female counterparts or men and women in other positions within the organization, in that the differential in role overload between male managers and professionals who have a manager who exhibits these behaviours and one who does not is relatively small (increase of .3). Why does gender play such a role within the managerial and professional group but not for those in other positions within the organization? While it is difficult to say exactly, these findings may indicate that gender-role expectations (i.e. women should put family first) conflict with the expectations organizations place on those in managerial and professional positions (e.g. work comes first, hours at work is a good indicator of employee commitment, productivity and loyalty).

Employees who report to a non-supportive manager report higher work-to-family interference

Employees who report to a non-supportive manager report higher levels of work-to-family interference than their counterparts who report to a manager who rarely displays non-supportive behaviours. Which behaviours are the most problematic? In general, the same ones we observed for role overload. In this case, however, all six of the behaviours that typify non-support are substantively linked to this form of work-life conflict. Not all behaviours are equally problematic, however, as can be observed by considering the list which ranks orders items from most to least problematic based on the amount of variation in work-to-family interference explained by the particular behaviour. Problematic behaviours include:

• has unreasonable expectations of the amount of work that can be done in a given amount of time
• works long hours and expects employees to do the same
• makes employees feel guilty about taking time off to deal with personal/family issues
• focuses on hours rather than output
• puts me down in front of others
• only talks to me when I make a mistake

The impact of these behaviours depends on gender, job type and dependent care status, as shown in Figures 35 through 40 and discussed in the sections below.

Figure 35: Relationship Between Unreasonable Expectations Around Work and Work Interferes with Family
a. Gender by Job Type

Figure 35: Relationship Between Unreasonable Expectations Around Work and Work Interferes with Family
b. Gender by Dependent Care

Figure 36: Relationship Between Working Long Hours and Expecting Employees to Do the Same and Work Interferes with Family
a. Gender by Job Type

Figure 36: Relationship Between Working Long Hours and Expecting Employees to Do the Same and Work Interferes with Family
b.Gender by Dependent Care Status

Figure 37: Relationship Between Making Employees Feel Guilty About Taking Time Off and Work Interferes with Family
a. Gender by Job Type Analysis

Figure 37: Relationship Between Making Employees Feel Guilty About Taking Time Off and Work Interferes with Family
b. Gender by Dependent Care Analysis

Figure 38: Relationship Between Focuses on Hours Rather than Output and Work Interferes with Family
Gender by Job Type Analysis

Figure 39: Relationship Between Puts Me Down in Front of Others and Work Interferes Family
a. Gender by Job Type Analysis

Figure 39: Relationship Between Puts Me Down in Front of Others and Work Interferes Family
b. Gender by Dependent Care Status

Figure 40: Relationship Between Only Talks to Employee When They Make Mistakes and Work Interferes with Family
Gender by Job Type Analysis

p

Figure 41: Relationship Between Focuses on Hour Not Output and Family Interferes with Work

Gender by Dependent Care Analysis

Having a non-supportive manager is more problematic for those in other positions in the organization

The data are unequivocal -- high levels of non-support are more strongly associated with an increased level of work-to-family interference for men and women working in other positions within the organization than for counterparts who are managers and professionals. The strength of this finding can be established by noting that this difference could be observed for all but one of the behaviours included in the non-supportive manager measure. The one exception to this trend was having a manager who focused on hours at work, not output, which was more problematic for women than men, regardless of job type.

Why do those in other positions experience more work-to-family interference when their manager is non-supportive? Possible explanations for these findings include the fact that employees in other positions within the organizations earn less money (Higgins & Duxbury, 2002) and have less job mobility than professional colleagues. This means that they may find it harder to pay for goods and services such as meals out, cleaning services, etc., which make working longer hours less problematic with respect to the fulfillment of family-role responsibilities. It may also mean that these employees have less of an ability to say no to extra work or to distance themselves from a manager who does not respect them or their hours of work.

Having a non-supportive manager is more problematic for those with dependent care responsibilities

The relationship between work-to-family interference and non-supportive management also varies according to the types of responsibilities an employee has at home and their gender. Three of the management behaviours are particularly problematic (i.e. associated with greater increases in work-to-family interference) for men and women with dependent care responsibilities:

• has unreasonable expectations with respect to work
• works long hours and expects employees to do the same
• makes employees feel guilty about taking time off to deal with personal/family issues

In all three of these cases, females with dependent care responsibilities experience the greatest benefit from having a manager who does not engage in these non-supportive activities.

Women who report to a manager who puts them down in public report higher levels of work-to-family interference than their male colleagues

Finally, it is interesting to note that work-to-family interference is more strongly associated with having a manager who puts one down in public for women than for men. This is an interesting finding and suggests that either the manager is making comments about the woman's family responsibilities and how they affect their work, or that women are less likely to approach a disrespectful manager for help with respect to family issues.

Employees with a manager who makes them feel guilty about taking time off for family or personal reasons report higher family-to-work interference

One behaviour in the non-supportive management measure is associated with the reduction of family-to-work interference regardless of gender or dependent care status. Employees with a manager who refrains from making them feel guilty about time off for family or personal reasons report less family-to-work interference than employees with a manager who is non-supportive with respect to this behaviour (Δ = +0.5).

Employees with dependent care who have a manager who focuses on hours at work report higher family-to-work interference

The data also show (Figure 41) that having a manager who focuses on hours at work is problematic for men and women with dependent care responsibilities. Women with dependent care responsibilities, in particular, find such management behaviour problematic (Δ = +0.5 in family-to-work interference). These findings could reflect the fact that managers who focus on hours at work may be less likely to let employees change their work hours or work from home to accommodate family concerns or responsibilities. As such, employees with this type of manager feel that their family issues and concerns get in the way of accomplishments at work.

Employees who have a manager who focuses on work rather than hours are better able to cope with caregiver strain

The behaviours that help employees, regardless of gender or dependent care status, cope with caregiver strain include:

• focuses on output not hours at work (Δ = +0.4)
• refrains from making them feel guilty about time off (Δ = +0.3)
• has realistic expectations with respect to work (Δ = +0.3)

This suggests that having a manager who has realistic work expectations, and who is understanding with respect to family issues, helps employees to cope with the demands associated with caring for an elderly dependent. It should be noted, however, that none of these relationships are as strong as those seen for role overload and work-to-family interference.