Work-Life Conflict in Canada in the New Millennium

Chapter Four

Work Interferes with Family: A Primer

This chapter provides a primer for interested readers on the second of the four forms of work-life conflict examined in the 2001 Balancing Work, Family and Lifestyle National Study - work interferes with family. The chapter begins by defining the concept of work interferes with family and quantifying its prevalence in Canada at this time. The chapter then goes on to identify the demographic and organizational factors that place employees at risk with respect to work interferes with family, articulate the consequences of high levels of this form of interfere on employers, employees, families and Canadian society and looks at how this form of work-life conflict can best be reduced.

Definition

This form of work-life conflict arises because employees cannot be physically and mentally in two different places doing two different things at exactly the same time. People who experience this type of work-life conflict resolve competing role demands by giving work priority over family/personal demands. In other words, they meet work demands at the expense of time for themselves and/or their families (i.e. bring work home to do in the evening, stay late at work, or miss family events due to work demands).

Prevalence

One in four respondents reports high levels of work interferes with family

A plurality of the working Canadians in our 2001 sample (38%) report moderate levels of work interferes with family. While just over one in four of the respondents (28%) report high interference from work to family (i.e. perceive that the demands they face at work make it very difficult to satisfy their non-work responsibilities), 35% are currently experiencing little work interferes with family.

Work interferes with family has remained fairly stable over time

A comparison of the percentage of the 1991 sample with high work interferes with family to the percentage with high interference in 2001 shows that the proportion of Canadians with high work interferes with family has remained fairly constant over the decade. While in some senses this is a positive finding (this form of interference has not increased), it is also cause for concern as it indicates that little has been done to address this issue.

Who is at risk with respect to role overload?

A number of conclusions with respect to the prediction of work interferes with family can be drawn from this body of research. From most to least important, the key determinants of work interferes with family are the organizational culture, work demands, sector of employment, socio-economic circumstances, characteristics of work and the community in which the employee lives. Key details on these and other conclusions are summarized below.

Work culture is the key determinant of role overload for both men and women

The most important predictor of work interferes with family for both genders is the culture of the organization for which they work. The power of the work culture to predict work-life conflict can be appreciated when one considers that our measure of culture is a better predictor of work interferes with family than work factors (i.e. job type, position), family conditions (i.e. family type, life cycle stage) or work and non-work demands. Specifically, this report identified the following cultures as being associated with increased levels of this form of work-life conflict:

• a culture of hours: employees who work for organizations with this culture perceive that it is not acceptable within their organization to say no to more work, and that their career advancement will be limited if they do not work long hours.
• a culture of work or family: employees who work for organizations with this culture feel they have to choose between their family and career advancement, and that family responsibilities and taking family leave will limit their career advancement.

On the other hand, employees who worked in an organization with a supportive culture (i.e. the culture promoted an environment that supported balance) reported significantly lower levels of work interferes with family.

Women respond to culture slightly differently than men

Data analysis showed that the link between organizational culture and this form of work-life conflict depends to some extent on the gender of the employee (i.e. men and women find different dimensions of an organization's culture to be particularly problematic). Specifically:

• working for an organization with a culture of hours presents more of a problem with respect to work interferes with family for men than for women.
• working for an organization with a culture of work or family presents more of a problem with respect to work interferes with family for women than men.
• women who feel that they are able to refuse overtime work are significantly less likely to report high levels of work interferes with family than women who do not feel that they can say no to overtime. Ability to say no to overtime is not predictive of work interferes with family for men.

Demands at work are a key determinant of work interferes with family

Unlike role overload, this form of work-life conflict is not just a function of workload. Rather, the work demands that predict work interferes with family all physically remove the employee from the family domain (i.e. job-related travel) and/or take time that is typically reserved for the family (unpaid overtime, supplemental work at home). Key predictors of work interferes with family for both genders include the number of hours spent in unpaid overtime per month, the number of weekend nights spent away from home on business per month, the number of hours per week spent in work, the number of hours per week spent in supplemental work at home, and the number of week nights spent away from home on business per month.

Canadians with more non-work responsibilities have higher work interferes with family

Analysis of the 2001 data reveals that employed Canadians with more non-work responsibilities experience higher work interferes with family. Specifically, employees in life cycle stages that entail dependent care responsibilities report the highest levels of work interferes with family; employees with no dependent care responsibilities report very low levels of this form of interference. It should be noted, however, that family demands are not as strong a risk factor for this form of work-life conflict as culture and work demands.

Life circumstances impact work interferes with family

If we have information on where people live, their family situation, where they work (i.e. their sector of employment) and their socio-demographic circumstances, we will have some understanding of the amount of work interferes with family they will experience. This would indicate that an employee's life circumstances (i.e. their work and life situation) have more of an influence on the 'juggling' aspect of work-life conflict than on the demand (overload) side of this phenomenon.

Men and women have the same experience with respect to work interferes with family

Work interferes with family is more a function of where one works, work and non-work demands and work schedules, than gender. Employees who spend more time in job-related travel (i.e. spend more week nights and weekend nights away from home), perform supplemental work at home, work unpaid overtime and work longer hours per week are more likely to report high levels of work interferes with family, regardless of their gender.

Role overload and work interferes with family are similar

The relationship between work interferes with family, and many of the demographic variables considered in this analysis, is very similar to that observed with respect to role overload. This would suggest that role overload and work interferes with family have the same underlying causative factors. It should be noted, however, that organizational culture and work demands are better predictors of work interferes with family than role overload.

Who is at risk with respect to work to family interference?

Who is at the highest risk with respect to work interferes with family? The data indicate that employees with heavier work and/or family demands and lower levels of control (i.e. inflexible work arrangements) such as managers and professionals, employees with dependent care responsibilities and those working in health care and education are at highest risk.

What are the consequences of high levels of work interferes with family?

Over one in four (28%) of the respondents to the 2001 survey reported high levels of work interferes with family What impact do these high levels of role interference have on employers, employees, families and Canadian society? Answers to these questions are summarized below.

What is the impact of high levels of work interferes with family on Canadian organizations?

High levels of work interferes with family create a major problem for many Canadian companies. Consider the following data. Compared to their counterparts with low levels of work interferes with family, employees with high work interferes with family are:

• 6.0 times more likely to report high levels of job stress,
• 2.8 times more likely to report high intent to turnover,
• 1.9 times more likely to have high absenteeism due to physical, mental or emotional fatigue,
• 1.3 times more likely to have high levels of absenteeism from work, all factors considered, and to miss three or more days of work in the past six months due to ill health,
• one-third as likely to report high levels of job satisfaction, and
• half as likely to have a positive view of their employer.

In addition, employees who report low levels of work interferes with family are 1.4 times more likely than those with high work interferes with family to be highly committed to their employer.

Work interferes with family affects an organization's ability to recruit and retain employees

The impact of work interferes with family on the organization is very similar to that observed with respect to role overload. This is not surprising given the high correlation between these two constructs. It should be noted, however, that the respondents with high levels of work interferes with family reported the lowest levels of commitment (only 44% with high commitment), the lowest levels of job satisfaction (only 24% were highly satisfied with their jobs), the highest levels of job stress (66% reported high job stress), and the highest intent to turnover (44% are thinking of leaving weekly or more, with 24% of them thinking of leaving several times a week or daily!) of any of the respondents in the study.

Organizational commitment, intent to turn over (change jobs), and view of the employer have all been found to be strongly associated with recruitment and retention issues.

These data imply that work interferes with family affects how people feel about their employer. Taken as a whole these findings suggest that employees who perceive that they have to put work ahead of family (e.g. feel that they have to make a choice between career advancement and family, or between job security and family) do not feel the same way about their employer as employees who do not perceive that such a choice is necessary. The employees who feel they have to choose between work and family are less committed to the organization and more likely to be thinking of leaving their organization.

Work interferes with family negatively impacts job satisfaction

As noted previously, employees with high levels of work interferes with family report the lowest levels of job satisfaction in this study. Why are those with high work interferes with family less likely to be satisfied with their jobs? The data indicate that compared to their counterparts with low levels of work interferes with family, employees with high work interferes with family are approximately:

• three times more likely to be dissatisfied with their workloads,
• 2.7 times more likely to be dissatisfied with the number of hours they work,
• 1.9 times more likely to be dissatisfied with their work schedule, and
• 1.6 times more likely to be dissatisfied with their ability to meet their career goals and their opportunities for career development.

In other words, high work demands, onerous work expectations and an inability to focus on career development activities reduce the level of job satisfaction for employees with high levels of work interferes with family.

The link between work interferes with family and job stress is very strong

The link between job stress and work interferes with family is very strong, and as such, worthy of note. Compared to their counterparts with low levels of work interferes with family, employees with high work interferes with family are six times more likely to report high levels of job stress. While the cross-sectional nature of the data makes it is impossible to determine why the association is so strong, two explanations are plausible. First, it may be that employees who work in high stress jobs are more likely to take their work home with them mentally. Alternatively, it may be that high stress jobs require the employee to work a lot of extra hours. The negative outcomes associated with high work interferes with family in this case could, therefore, be partly attributed to its association with high role overload.

The link between interference and intent to quit is also very strong

Compared to their counterparts with low levels of work interference with family, employees with high work interferes with family are 2.8 times more likely to report high intent to turnover. Why are those with high work interferes with family more likely to be thinking of leaving the organization? The data indicate that, compared to those with low work interferes with family, employees with high work interferes with family are:

• 6.7 times more likely to say they would leave because they wanted more time for their family and/or themselves,
• 6.6 times more likely to say they would leave because their work expectations were unrealistic,
• 4.1 times more likely to say they would leave because their work environment is non-supportive,
• 3.3 times more likely to say they would leave because their values are not the same as their organization,
• 2.8 times more likely to say they would leave because their work environment is frustrating,
• 2.6 times more likely to say they would leave because they perceive that they are not recognized for their efforts, and
• 2.4 times more likely to say they would leave because of personality conflicts at work.

Cost of absenteeism, due to high work interferes with family, is $1 billion per year

While work interferes with family is also associated with total absenteeism and absence due to mental or emotional fatigue, the association is not as strong as that observed with respect to role overload. Nevertheless, the data reviewed in this report indicates that employers could reduce absenteeism in their organizations by 6.3% if they eliminated high levels of work interferes with family - a savings of approximately $1 billion per year in direct costs alone (savings of $1.5 to $2 billion if one also includes the indirect costs of absenteeism due to this form of work-life conflict).

What is the impact of high levels of work interferes with family on Canadian employees?

The data reviewed in this study can serve as a warning to employees that the strategy of 'trying to do it all' and 'meeting heavy demands at work at the expense of one's personal life' is associated with impaired mental and physical health. Compared to their counterparts with low work interferes with family, employees with high work interferes with family were:

• 5.6 times more likely to report high levels of burnout,
• 2.4 times more likely to report high levels of depressed mood,
• 2.4 times more likely to say their health is fair/poor,
• 2.3 times as likely to report that they were in poor physical health,
• 2.2 times as likely to report high levels of perceived stress, and
• slightly less than half as likely to report high levels of life satisfaction.

In other words, work interferes with family is associated with higher levels of perceived stress, burnout, and depressed mood and lower levels of life satisfaction and perceived physical health. The extent to which this form of work-life conflict poses a mental health risk for employed Canadians can be appreciated when one considers the following: 62% of the respondents with high work interferes with family reported high levels of burnout while just over three quarters (77%) reported high levels of perceived stress.

What is the impact of high levels of work interferes with family on Canadian families?

Work interferes with family is negatively associated with all of the family outcomes examined in this study. Compared to their counterparts with high work interferes with family, those with low levels of this form of work-life conflict are:

• three times as likely to frequently engage in activities associated with high levels of family integration.
• 2.2 times as likely to live in families with high levels of adaptation (i.e. are able to adapt to the stresses in their lives),
• 1.5 times as likely to be satisfied with their family life, and
• 1.5 times as likely to be satisfied with their parental abilities,

These findings indicate that employees who put work ahead of family can expect to experience serious repercussions on the family front. Such employees are less satisfied with their families and their abilities as a parent, less pleased with their family's well-being, and less likely to live in a stable family unit. It is interesting to note that the relationship between family integration and work interferes with family is particularly strong (only 12% of employees with high levels of work interferes with family can find/make the time to engage in meaningful activities with their families).

What is the impact of high levels of work interferes with family on Canadian society?

To answer this question we looked at the impact of work interferes with family on the use of Canada's health care system and the decision to have children.

Employees whose work interferes with their family make greater use of Canada's health care system

Approximately one in three of the employees in this sample have high levels of work interferes with family. These individuals make more use of Canada's health care system than their counterparts who do not experience such interference. The magnitude of the relationship between work interferes with family and the use of Canada's health care system can be determined by examining the following relative risk data. Compared to their counterparts with low levels of work interferes with family, employees with high levels of work interferes with family were:

• 1.7 times more likely to have sought care from a mental health professional,
• 1.7 times more likely to have received care on an outpatient basis three or more times,
• 1.6 times more likely to have seen a physician three or more times,
• 1.5 times more likely to have visited a hospital emergency room,
• 1.4 times more likely to have had to spend at least one night in the hospital, and
• 1.3 times more likely to have sought care from another health professional four or more times.

These data imply that demands on the health care system could be reduced if employers implemented policies which have been found to make it easier for employed Canadians to combine work and non-work roles. Suggestions here include greater use of flexible work arrangements such as flextime and compressed work weeks, and more judicious use of jobrelated travel.

Cost of physician visits due to high work interferes with family was approximately $650 million per year

Analysis done in Report Three determined that the number of physician visits made by Canadians per year could be reduced by 8.5% if work interferes with family was eliminated - a savings of approximately $650 million per year.

Costs associated with inpatient hospital care due to high work interferes with family were almost $2 billion per year

Employees reporting high work interferes with family are substantially more likely to require inpatient hospital care than those with lower levels of interference. We estimated that in 2001 these excess visits cost Canadian taxpayers almost $2 billion per year. Other calculations indicated that the costs associated with inpatient hospital care could be reduced by approximately 9% if employees were more able to balance competing work and life demands and did not meet work demands at the expense of commitments to family and non-work roles.

Emergency department visits could be reduced by 12% if interference from work to family was reduced

Employees with high work interferes with family are 1.5 times more likely seek care at an emergency department than are their counterparts with lower levels of interference. The cost of these extra visits was estimated to be approximately $144 million per year.

Employees who consistently let work interferes with family spend more on prescription drugs

Employees with high work-interferes with family were 1.3 times more likely than those with lower levels of interference to spend $150 or more on prescription medication in a six-month period. In 2001 they spent approximately $188 per year ($94 in a six-month period) on medication for their own use, $34 per year more than their counterparts with low interference. We have noted previously that employees who put work ahead of family pay a price for this behaviour in terms of increased stress, depressed mood and lower life satisfaction. It appears from these data that the employer also pays a price to their bottom line through increased benefit costs.

Employees with higher levels of work interferes with family cope by limiting family size

The relationship between work interferes with family and decision-making around having children reinforces our contention that some of the decline in Canada's birth rate may be attributed to increases in work-life conflict. Employees with higher levels of work interferes with family are more likely to agree that they have had fewer children because of work demands, and to agree that they have delayed having children or decided not to have children because of career demands and work interferes with family.

These findings point to the fact that employees having problems reconciling work and family demands are more likely than those more able to balance competing expectations to decide that they cannot cope with the additional responsibilities that come with additional children. As such they reinforce our contention that one way for Canadian policy-makers to address declining fertility is by looking at how they can reduce work interferes with family.

What can we do to reduce work interferes with family?

What can employers, employees and their families do to help reduce the percent of the population at risk of high work interferes with family? Answers to these questions are summarized below. Things that can be done by employees are addressed first. This is followed by strategies that can be employed by employees and their families.

Perceived flexibility the key to reducing work interferes with family

This research has identified a very strong association between higher levels of perceived flexibility and lower levels of work interferes with family. The strength of this relationship can be illustrated by the fact that higher levels of six of 10 forms of flexibility in this analysis were associated with lower levels of this type of work-life conflict for employees, regardless of their gender, their job type or their dependent care status. What forms of flexibility should employers implement if they wish to help employees cope with work interferes with family? They should make it easier for employees to:

• arrange their work schedule to meet personal or family commitments,
• get home from work in time to have meals with their family,
• interrupt their work day to deal with personal or family matters and then return to work.,
• take paid time off work to attend a course or a conference,
• take a paid day off to care for a sick child, and
• take a paid day off to care for an elderly dependent.

All of these forms of flexibility give employees greater control over the work-family situation by helping them deal with family or personal issues (both scheduled and unanticipated) during work hours. In other words, they help employees meet personal commitments during what are traditionally considered to be 'work hours.' Given the high costs of this form of work-life conflict, it would appear that allowing employees greater freedom to deal with personal issues during work hours makes good business sense.

The importance of increasing perceived flexibility within the organization as a strategy to reduce work interferes with family is further illustrated by the fact that three of the remaining four items in the perceived flexibility measure were all moderately associated with work interferes with family. These data indicate that organizations that wish to reduce work interferes with family should consider making it easier for employees to: vary their hours of work, take their holidays when they want, and be home when their children get home from school.

Who you work for and how they behave is key to coping with work interferes with family

The findings from this study are unequivocal - work interferes with family depends more on who you report to within the organization and how they behave, than the organization you work for. Employees who work for a non-supportive manager were significantly more likely to experience high levels of interference while those reporting to a supportive manager were more likely to report lower levels of interference. Even more striking is the fact that all sixteen of the behaviours typifying non-supportive and supportive management were either strongly or moderately associated with this form of work-life conflict. These data indicate that a focus on management behaviour in general, and on reducing non-supportive management in particular, should bring about substantial reductions in work interferes with family. Details are given below.

Employees who report to a non-supportive manager report higher work interferes with family

The importance of developing strategies to reduce non-supportive management behaviours within the organization can be illustrated by noting the very strong association between increased work interferes with family and working for a manager who has unrealistic expectations with respect to the work to be done, and who works longs hours and expects employees to do the same.

The other four behaviours typifying non-supportive management are also moderately associated with work interferes with family. Specifically, interference increases concomitant with reporting to a manager who makes the employee feel guilty about time off work for personal or family reasons, focuses on hours of work and not on output, puts the employee down in front of others, and only talks to the employee when they make a mistake. Decreasing the extent to which these behaviours occur should be a high priority in organizations wishing to address this form of work-life conflict.

Having a supportive manager helps employees cope with work interferes with family

A focus on increasing the number of supportive managers within the organization should also help employees cope with work interferes with family. Specifically, organizations need to increase the extent to which their managers display the following behaviours:

• listen to employees' concerns.
• effectively plan the work to be done.
• be available to answer their employee's questions.
• ask for input before making decisions that affect employees' work.
• make expectations clear.
• give recognition for a job well done.
• support their employees' decisions.
• provide constructive feedback.
• share information with employees.

Shift work is associated with higher work interferes with family

Flexible work arrangements, on their own, have little impact on work interferes with family. The following lends credibility to this conclusion. First, the association between working flextime, a compressed work week, and a regular 9 to 5 workday, and work interferes with family, was not significant. Second, the associations that do exist are only weak and do not yield large changes in role interference. That being said, employers who do wish to reduce work interferes with family should be aware of the following:

• part-time work helps employees with dependent care responsibilities cope with work interferes with family.
• shift work puts people at risk for work interferes with family.
• both guerilla telework and telework arrangements are moderately associated with increased work interferes with family.

Family-friendly benefits do little to help employees cope with work interferes with family

Supportive benefits, on their own, have little impact on work interferes with family. This conclusion is supported by the fact that the association between the use of the following benefits and work interferences was not significant: on-site day care, use of child care referral, use of elder care referral services, use of flexible work arrangements, use of EAP, emergency days off, unpaid LOA, use of paid personal days off work, use of time off in lieu of overtime, use of short-term personal leave, telework, supportive relocation policies, and part-time work/job-sharing.

Many of the strategies individuals use to cope with work interferes with family do little to help

The findings with respect to the effectiveness of various individual coping strategies to ease work interferes with family are virtually the same as was noted for role overload. Again, we conclude that the majority of the individual coping strategies examined in this body of research do little to help employees cope with work interferes with family. There was no association between work interferes with family and the use of the majority of the individual coping strategies examined. Neither social support (talked with family or friends, talked with colleagues at work, sought help from family or friends, sought help from colleagues at work) nor active coping strategies (i.e. prioritize, delegate, schedule, plan and organize) helped individuals deal with work interferes with family. Nor did doing the following lead to a decrease in this type of conflict: trying to find another activity to take one's mind off things, having an alcoholic drink, or off-shifting work with a partner. Furthermore, there is no relationship between work interferes with family and attempts to cope by just trying to forget about things and using prescription medicine

So what does appear to make a difference? Working harder and reducing the quality of things one does, which are the same strategies that were significantly linked to role overload. Again, we note that the relationship between the use of each of these strategies and work interferes with family is very strong and positive, which reinforces our idea that these strategies do not help employees cope with work-life conflict, and instead may exacerbate the situation.

Employees with higher work interferes with family cope by working harder

The relationship between working harder and work interferes with family is very strong. Unlike the situation with respect to role overload, however, the effectiveness of this strategy depends on the gender, job type and dependent care status of the individual. The data from this study support the following conclusions with respect to the relationship between working harder and work interferes with family:

• the use of this coping strategy is associated with increased work interferes with family for men and women in managerial and professional positions and men with dependent care responsibilities. These findings suggest that these employees cope by devoting more effort to their work role, thereby increasing their feelings of interference on the family front.
• the use of this coping strategy does provide for some degree of relief from work interferes with family for those in other positions within the organization - especially men. It may be that by working harder these individuals are more able to focus their efforts on meeting demands outside of work, thereby reducing the extent to which work interferes with family.

Employees with higher work interferes with family cope by reducing the quality of their work

The relationship between the use of this strategy and work interferes with family varies with dependent care status. Employees with dependent care responsibilities experience a greater drop in work interferes with family than do their counterparts without such responsibilities, when they reduce the quality of things that they do. These findings are consistent with our contention that individuals with child and/or elder care responsibilities cope with work interferes with family by lowering their standards at home. These results also support our view that organizations that make it difficult for employees to reconcile work and non-work demands, by expecting employees to give priority to work at the expense of their lives, will not realize significant productivity gains.

Daily use of prescription drugs helps employees cope with work interferes with family

Similar to what was observed with respect to role overload, there is a moderate relationship between the use of prescription medicine to cope with stress and work interferes with family. Furthermore, the data verify the relationship between prescription drug use and work-life conflict observed with role overload: prescription medicine helps employees cope with conflict if used on a daily basis. Weekly use, however, is associated with higher levels of work interferes with family.

Employees who cope by sacrificing their personal needs report higher levels of work interferes with family

Individuals who cope with work interferes with family by sacrificing their personal needs (i.e. leave things undone around the house, cutting back on sleep, cutting down on outside activities and buying goods and services) do not experience lower levels of interference. The relationship between the use of two of these strategies (cutting back on sleep and buying goods and services) and interference is very straightforward: the greater the use, the greater the interference. The relationship between the use of the other two strategies and interference is more complex. Details are given below.

Occasionally leaving things undone around the house helps women cope with work interferes with family

Leaving things undone around the house has a strong, positive association with work interferes with family for men, regardless of their job type. For women, on the other hand, moderate use (i.e. once a week) of this strategy is associated with an increased ability to cope with work interferes with family. Women who leave things undone around the house on a daily basis, however, report significantly higher levels of interference. Women in managerial and professional positions, in particular, benefit from using this strategy moderately.

Employees who from time to time cut down on outside activities are more able to cope with work interferes with family

A similar relationship can be observed on work interferes with family with the use of cutting down on outside activities as a coping strategy. Moderate use of this strategy is associated with lower levels of interference, while daily use of the strategy is associated with greater interference regardless of gender, job type or dependent care status. Men and women in managerial and professional positions benefit the most from the moderate use of this strategy, in terms of a decline in work interferes with family. Male managers and professionals experience the greatest increase in interference when this strategy is used daily. The fact that no such increase in interference can be observed for female managers and professionals suggests that this strategy is effective at all levels of use for women in this group.

Employees who put family first are more able to cope with work interferes with family

Employees who wish to reduce the amount of interference they experience between work and family need to make a conscious effort to leave work problems at work, and modify their work schedules. The results imply that employees who make an effort to separate work time from non-work time, by leaving work problems at work, will realize significant declines in work interferes with family.

Managers and professionals who put family first are more able to cope with work interferes with family

Similarly, modifying work schedules was only significantly associated with work interferes with family in the analysis that took job type into consideration. Male and female managers and professionals benefit the most when they modify their work schedule. Interestingly, the results suggest that modifying one's work schedule once or twice a week is enough to help employees in this group cope with work interferes with family. Additional modification (i.e. on a daily basis) provides no additional reduction in interference.

Non-professionals who put family first are less able to cope with work interferes with family

The relationship between work interferes with family and modification of work schedule is quite different for women in other positions within the organization. Similar to what was observed in the other groups, these experience a decline in interference when they move from never modifying their schedules to weekly modification. Unfortunately, this group experiences a significant increase of interference when they use this strategy on a daily basis. While we cannot say why modification of one's work schedule increases interference for this group of women when used frequently, the findings with respect to work schedules does shed some light. It will be recalled that women in other positions are more likely to work a 9 to 5 schedule when the hours of work are fixed and therefore predictable. It may be that women in this group, who cannot afford more flexible child and elder care support services, may find working flexible hours more problematic with respect to getting things done at home.

Employees with higher levels of interference are more likely to try and cope by purchasing supports from outside the family

There is a positive relationship between work interferes with family and purchasing good and services from outside the family. The difference in interference between someone who never purchases outside support and one who does so daily is notable, suggesting that while money can buy happiness, it may not be able to buy balance.